Jul 10 / Paul Jacobs

Biliteracy in Schools: Building Bridges Between Languages

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When we talk about literacy in multilingual schools, it is easy to focus on the language of instruction. We often ask how students can develop stronger reading and writing skills in English, or another school language, without always considering the literacy knowledge they already bring with them.

I believe we need to start with a different question: How can literacy in one language support literacy development in another?

This question sits at the heart of biliteracy. Rather than seeing languages as existing in separate compartments, research increasingly shows that they interact. The challenge for educators is understanding what transfers between languages, when that transfer happens, and how we can intentionally support it in the classroom.

Biliteracy is more than learning to read twice

Biliteracy is often understood simply as the ability to read and write in two languages. While that definition is broadly true, it does not fully capture the complexity of how literacy develops across languages.

Research distinguishes between two broad areas of biliteracy. One explores the cognitive processes involved in learning to read and write in multiple languages. The other considers the social and cultural dimensions of literacy.

My focus here is on the first of these: understanding the underlying skills that support literacy development and how they can be applied across languages.

This perspective encourages us to move away from seeing multilingual learners as beginning from scratch each time they encounter a new language. They already possess knowledge, strategies, and experiences that can support future learning. The question is how we help them make those connections.

Literacy skills transfer - how it works

One of the most important findings from research into biliteracy is that learners do not arrive as blank slates.

Students bring conceptual knowledge, oral language, background knowledge, and a range of underlying literacy skills developed through their home language. Many of these can support literacy development in another language.

However, transfer is not automatic.

This is perhaps one of the biggest misconceptions about biliteracy. We often hear that literacy simply transfers across languages, but the reality is more nuanced. Some skills transfer relatively easily, while others depend on the relationship between the languages involved.

As teachers, our role is to make these connections visible.

Rather than assuming transfer will happen naturally, we can actively help students recognise similarities, notice differences, and draw on what they already know.

Different scripts, shared foundations

Current models of reading provide a useful lens for understanding biliteracy.

The Simple View of Reading suggests that successful reading comprehension depends on two broad components: word recognition and language comprehension. It remains one of the most influential models of reading development, but it has largely been developed through research on alphabetic languages, particularly English.

That matters because many multilingual learners are reading and writing in languages that use very different writing systems. Alphabetic writing systems rely heavily on phoneme-grapheme relationships, whereas syllabic and morphosyllabic writing systems require learners to develop somewhat different skills.

At first glance, these differences can make literacy development across languages appear entirely separate. Yet the underlying principles remain remarkably consistent. Learners still need rich oral language, vocabulary, background knowledge, comprehension skills, and the ability to connect written symbols with meaning.

The route may differ, but the destination is remarkably similar.

Why language distance matters

Not all language pairings present the same challenges.

Some languages share many structural similarities, making transfer relatively straightforward. Others differ significantly in script, grammar, vocabulary, or sound systems, meaning that transfer requires more explicit teaching.

I often think about this using the analogy of sport. A footballer moving into futsal already possesses many of the underlying skills. Some adaptation is needed, but the games share common principles. Moving from football to basketball is different. Athletic ability still transfers, but the rules, movements, and expectations are much further apart.

Languages work in much the same way. The greater the linguistic distance between two languages, the more intentionally we need to help learners identify what can transfer and what needs to be learned in new ways.

Biliteracy in schools
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Making cross-linguistic connections visible

If transfer is not automatic, then teachers have an important role to play in making those connections explicit.

This does not require us to speak all of our students' languages. Instead, it involves creating opportunities for learners to compare, notice, and reflect.

Simple questions can make a significant difference:
  • How is this similar to your home language?
  • What is different?
  • What do you already know that might help you here?

These conversations encourage students to use their existing linguistic knowledge as a resource rather than leaving it at the classroom door.
This approach aligns closely with pedagogical translanguaging. By drawing on their full linguistic repertoire, learners can process ideas, build conceptual understanding, and develop literacy across languages without diminishing the importance of the language of instruction.

Building bridges, not parallel pathways

Perhaps the most important message from biliteracy research is that literacy does not develop through separate programmes operating independently of one another.

It develops when educators recognise that students' languages are connected.

Supporting biliteracy is not about teaching literacy twice. It is about understanding that multilingual learners already possess valuable linguistic and literacy resources, and designing learning that enables those resources to support continued growth.

When we intentionally build bridges between languages, we do more than improve reading and writing. We help students understand that every language they bring to school has value, and that each one contributes to their identity, their learning, and their success.

References and resources

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